1) "Life history theory is an analytical framework widely used in animal and human biology, psychology, and evolutionary anthropology which postulates that many of the physiological traits and behaviors of individuals may be best understood in terms of the key maturational and reproductive characteristics that define the life course." "More recently researchers working in the life history tradition have drawn attention to the way the functional relationships described may also be understood in terms of the fetal programming hypothesis. This hypothesis holds that early growth retardation results in adjustments or impairments in fetal development which have permanent consequences for function and health risk. Programming is thought to occur through "induction, deletion or impaired development of a permanent somatic structure as a result of a stimulus or insult" (Davies and Norman, 2002:386). An accompanying mechanism has also been advanced in an attempt to explain the operation of the programming: the thrifty phenotype hypothesis. The thrifty phenotype process is thought to operate via altered glucose-insulin metabolism (Hales and Barker, 1992, 2001). Although evidence of fetal programming in humans has been questioned on the basis of weaknesses in retrospective epidemiological studies (Huxley et al, 2002), there is very strong evidence from studies of animals to show that an adverse environment (including maternal nutrition) in fetal or neonatal life can have profound effects on metabolic and cardiovascular disease risk in adulthood (Armitage et al, 2004, Langley Evans, 2006, McMillen and Robinson, 2005) The fetal origins hypothesis has subsequently been developed to include the idea of an 'appropriateness of fit' between the phenotype and its environment. This has resulted in increased attention being drawn to the problems which may occur if there is a mismatch between physiologic capacities established in early development and the environments in which they later function." Source and further information: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_history_theory 2) "It has been suggested that in poor nutritional conditions, a pregnant female can modify the development of her unborn child such that it will be prepared for survival in an environment in which resources are likely to be short, resulting in a thrifty phenotype (Hales & Barker, 1992). Individuals with a thrifty phenotype will have "a smaller body size, a lowered metabolic rate and a reduced level of behavioural activity… adaptations to an environment that is chronically short of food" (Bateson & Martin, 1999). Those with a thrifty phenotype who actually develop in an affluent environment may be more prone to metabolic disorders, such as obesity and type II diabetes, whereas those who have received a positive maternal forecast will be adapted to good conditions and therefore better able to cope with rich diets. This idea, which is also known as the Barker hypothesis (Barker, 1992), is now widely (if not universally) accepted and is a source of grave concern for societies undergoing a transition from sparse to better nutrition (Robinson, 2001)." Source and further information: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetal_origins_of_adult_disease 3) "Maternal impression, according to a long-discredited medical theory, was a phenomenon that explained the existence of birth defects and congenital disorders. The theory stated that an emotional stimulus experienced by a pregnant woman could influence the development of the fetus. For example, it was sometimes supposed that the mother of the Elephant Man was frightened by an elephant during her pregnancy, thus "imprinting" the memory of the elephant onto the gestating fetus. Mental problems, such as schizophrenia and depression, were believed to be a manifestation of similar disordered feelings in the mother. For instance, a pregnant woman who experienced great sadness might imprint depressive tendencies onto the fetus in her uterus. The theory of maternal impression was largely abandoned by the 20th century, with the development of modern genetic theory." Source and further information: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_impression 4) "Prenatal and perinatal psychology is an interdisciplinary study of the foundations of health in body, mind, emotions and in enduring response patterns to life. It explores the psychological and psychophysiological effects and implications of the earliest experiences of the individual, before birth ("prenatal"), as well as during and immediately after childbirth ("perinatal") on the health and learning ability of the individual and on their relationships. As a broad field it has developed a variety of curative and preventive interventions for the unborn, at childbirth, for the new born, infants and adults who are adversely affected by early prenatal and perinatal dysfunction and trauma. Some of these methods have not been without significant controversy, for example homebirth in the West and in earlier days, LSD psychotherapy for resolving birth trauma." Source and further information: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-_and_perinatal_psychology